The Laguna de Bay Masterplan

Executive Summary

1.2.1

As its overall framework, the Master Plan should provide the vision for the development of the Laguna de Bay Region consistent with the national goals under the Philippines 2000, particularly with the sustainable development thrusts of the Medium Term Development Plan.

1.2.2

Towards this vision, short and long term objectives should be set in the Plan together with the strategies and mechanism to attain them.

1.2.3

Discussion on:  (a)  potentials of the region, including alternative uses for lake;  (b)  the attributes and characteristics of the Region;  (c)  assessment of the present state of the lake Region, including its implications on the other sectors and to national life;  (d)  issues affecting the Lake, including policy and structural concerns; and  (e)  status of the existing government’s initiatives to address these issues, to serve as basis for the Plan objectives and activities.

1.2.4

Central part of the Plan should be the discussions on the specific programs and measures to be implemented, including concrete government interventions to address the issues and concerns on Laguna de Bay (such as environment degradation, water pollution, management problems, etc.)

1.2.5

Inclusion of the appropriate organizational framework for effective Plan administration.  This should clearly define the role and responsibilities of the concerned agencies in the implementation of the Plan.  Part of this, should be the system for monitoring and reviewing the Plan implementation to ensure the attainment of the Plan objectives.

1.2.6

The Plan objectives and activities for Laguna de Bay Region should be complementary with those in Mt. Makiling Reserve Area to allow their integration into the blueprint for development of both areas as envisioned in Executive Order No. 121.

1.4.1

LAND RESOURCE COMPONENT

This component deals with the investigation of the natural and physical attributes of the lake watershed and includes agriculture, industries, built up areas, forest areas, pedology/geology, land use, protected areas, reserve areas and natural parks.

1.4.2

WATER RESOURCE COMPONENT

This component is of fundamental importance in the implementation of measures for the rehabilitation of the Laguna de Bay environment and for sustaining development activities.  This includes the lake and its tributaries, air and water quality, chemical and biological attributes, fisheries, pollution, lake uses, benthos, hydrologic and hydraulic conditions.  The conflicting and competing uses and the associated socio-economic and environmental problems are also investigated.

1.4.3

SOCIO - ECONOMIC  STRUCTURES/ PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT COMPONENT

This component deals with the investigation of the sociological and economic aspects in the study area.  This includes demography, political and economic structures, regional economy and existing programs and projects.

1.4.4

INSTITUTIONS AND INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

This component deals with an analysis of existing institutional arrangements in managing the Laguna de Bay Region and its basin resources.  Legal and policy instruments, inter-agency coordinations, organizational problems and structural constraints are investigated to come up with appropriate institutional changes.  Of major importance are the institutional issues and constraints within LLDA - the agency mandated to manage the development of the Laguna de Bay Region.

The project components and corresponding activities of the Master Plan Project was prepared by an integrated team headed by the Project Manager, the LLDA Technical Support Staff and the Project Staff specifically hired for the purpose.

The first activity undertaken by the project staff included the collection of data and information based on major studies conducted on Laguna de Bay Region since the 70s and a multi-sectoral consultations with stakeholders.  The second phase was the analysis and synthesis of the recommendation of these studies by the LLDA technical support staff.  The third phase involved the presentation of the LLDA divisional concerns, projects and activities.  The last phase was the formulation of specific programs and strategies for the development of the Laguna de Bay and its watershed basin.

1.5.1

REPORT STRUCTURE

This is the Final Report of the Master Plan for the Laguna de Bay Region.  To achieve the objectives set forth, the Master Plan has focused on the development and formulation of different programs and projects.  Ten appendices are attached to this report.  Nine (9) programs are proposed to address specific sectoral issues and concerns in the Region.  These are as follows:

A.

Environmental Management Program

B.

Watershed Management Program

C.

Fisheries Development Program

D.

Agricultural Development Program

E.

Cottage Industries Development Program

F.

Institutional Development Program

G.

Community Development Program

H.

Research Agenda

J.

Contains a compilation of the proposed plans and programs of the different agencies concerned with the Laguna de Bay Region.

1.5.2 

ORGANIZATION OF THE FINAL REPORT

The remaining part of the Final Report is structured in the following order.  In Chapter 1 the overview of the Master Plan is presented.  This includes the rationale and impetus for which the Master Plan was formulated.  The policy statement expressed under Executive Order No. 121 issued by the President on August 24, 1993 as translated in the parameters set forth by the Executive Department was presented.  Following from the parameters identified, the ultimate objective of the Master Plan is the development of strategies and program, for the protection, rehabilitation and/or enhancement of the environment and natural resources in the Laguna de Bay region in order to ensure an efficient, equitable and sustainable development.

Chapter 2 presents the general overview of the Laguna de Bay Basin.  It describes the general features of the lake and its watershed in terms of its origin, geology, topography, climatology, location, hydrology and land uses.

The socio-economic profile of the lake region is also presented focusing on the demography and regional economy.  This chapter highlighted the central focus of the regional resource which is the lake itself and the multifarious uses for which it is intended.

A special treatment of the existing institutions and institutional arrangements in managing the Laguna de Bay is presented in Chapter 3.  The evolution of Laguna Lake Development Authority as a special regional agency was presented.  The policy and legal framework (Republic Act 4850 and its amendments) were clarified whereby the mandates, jurisdiction, powers and functions of LLDA were defined.  The second part of this chapter deals with the institutional issues and concerns facing LLDA as it manages the resources of the Laguna de Bay region.

Chapter 4 presents the regional development issues, problems and constraints.  These include environmental concerns such as water quality issues, pollution and declining fisheries; constraints on land resources focusing on land use and conversion, deforestation, urbanization, land titling of shorelands and ground water contamination; and ; socio-economic concerns such as conflicting uses of the lake, lake fishery problems, livelihood and skills training.

Chapter 5 is the presentation of the proposed regional development plans and programs.  A regional development framework, as a guide to the development of sectoral program formulation is presented as the first part of this chapter.  The overall plan is presented based on sectoral program areas namely:  Environmental Management, Watershed Management, Fisheries Development, Agricultural Development, Cottage Industries Development, Institutional Development, Lake Environmental Education and Communication Support, Community Development and Research Agenda.  The objectives, strategies and components for each program are also presented.  The details and profiles of the project components for each program are annexed in the appendices of the Master Plan.

Chapter 6 contains a summary of the implementation schedule of the proposed programs and projects in the Master Plan.  A summary of the estimated costs for the implementation of the proposed programs and projects is presented in Chapter 7.

2.0   THE LAGUNA DE BAY BASIN

Contents:

2.1   GENERAL OVERVIEW

Contents:

2.1.1

ORIGIN OF LAGUNA DE BAY

2.1.2

GEOLOGY

2.1.3

TOPOGRAPHY

2.1.4

CLIMATOLOGY

2.1.5

LOCATION

2.1.6

HYDROLOGY OF THE LAKE

2.1.7

LAND USE

2.1.1

Varied opinions have been advanced by early geologists regarding the origin of Laguna de Bay. The idea that the bay was formerly a volcanic crater or that it originated through subsidence of a volcano, remains unresolved.  The most generally accepted theory, however, based on recent findings, is that the basin was once part of Manila Bay.  The drill cores uncovered various layers of marine shells which are of the same species as those shells living in Manila Bay waters today.  Remnants of almost identical species of marine shells were also found in the upper shores of the town of Bagumbayan (Luneta Park), and in the Marikina fault in Pasig-Marikina river junction (SOGREAH, 1974).

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2.1.2 

GEOLOGY                                                                                       

The Laguna de Bay watershed is underlain almost entirely by Quarternary (Pliocene-Pleistocene) clastic, pyroclastic and volcanic rocks, except for the extreme northern portion of the region, which is occupied chiefly by Tertiary rocks and a few erosional remnants of Cretaceous rocks.  A group of volcanic cones and small crater-lakes characterizes the southern Laguna de Bay watershed.  These volcanoes experienced intermittent eruptions, both quiet and explosive types of varied intensities, during the Pleistocene time.  They ejected large volumes of volcanic and pyroclastic materials, particularly tuff and agglomerate that blanketed extensive areas of the older Tertiary rocks (SOGREAH, 1974).  

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2.1.3

TOPOGRAPHY                                                                                               

The surface feature of the area is characterized by mixed topography.  The area is 35% gentle, 45% rolling, 15% steep and 5% very steep (Pacardo et.al., 1988).  The northern part of the watershed is characterized by a series of rolling hills with high to moderate reliefs.  Among these are the Binangonan peninsula, Talim Island, Jala-Jala peninsula and the Famy valley, which is flanked to the east by the Caliraya plateau (SOGREAH, 1974).  However, the southern portion of the watershed can be described by the presence of a group of volcanic cones with numerous smaller cinder cones and crater lakes.  Some of the prominent features of this part are Mt. Banahaw, the highest in the whole region at elevation 2165 meters, Mt. San Cristobal, Mt. Nagcarlan and Mt. Makiling.  The major part of the remote places or thinly inhabited areas is covered mostly with forest which includes most of limestone hills.  The lower land areas and valleys are normally planted to seasonal rice, vegetables, fruit trees, other short-season crops.  

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2.1.4

CLIMATOLOGY 

The prevailing climatic conditions are the Type I for the Rizal province and Metro Manila, having two pronounced seasons (i.e. dry from November to April and wet from May to October) and Type IV for the Laguna and Cavite provinces (i.e. having an even distribution of rainfall throughout the year (NEDA,  1987).  In the cool season (December to February), the lowest air temperatures and peak wind velocities occur, causing high water turbidity that even with the presence of large amounts of free nutrients, primary production and fish growth is at its lowest for the year.

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2.1.5

LOCATION                                                                                                      

Today, Laguna de Bay cover almost one half of the 190,000 ha. total area of all existing lakes in this country.  It is known as the second largest inland body of water in Southeast Asia next to Lake Toba in Indonesia (Santos-Borja, 1994).  It has a total surface area of about 90,000 has. and an average depth of 2.8 m.  Laguna de Bay stands unique in the sense that it is right in the middle of its upper watershed.  It lies just east and generally south of Metropolitan Manila.  The lake has a total volume of 3.2 billion cubic meters with a  shoreline of 220 km.  There are 21 tributaries that drain into the lake;  35% of freshwater that drain comes from Pagsanjan River while 15% comes from Sta. Cruz River.  The only outlet of the lake is the Napindan Channel which at its confluence with the Marikina river, forms the Pasig river, which meanders along a 24 km. long course westward through a major part of Metropolitan Manila, before eventually discharging into Manila Bay (Francisco, 1985).  Other lakes in the region also include the Seven Crater Lakes in San Pablo City with a total surface area of 289.6 has. and Tadlak Lake in Los Baños with only 22.6 ha. area.

Laguna de Bay Region occupies 1.3% of the total land area of the Philippines.  It encompasses the whole provinces of Rizal and Laguna, the cities of San Pablo, Pasay, Caloocan, Quezon, Manila and Tagaytay, the towns of Tanauan, Sto. Tomas and Malvar in Batangas, the towns of Silang and Carmona in Cavite; Lucban in Quezon province and Marikina, Pasig, Taguig, Muntinlupa and Pateros in Metro Manila.  To sum it up, Laguna de Bay Region boundaries include 6 provinces, 60 municipalities of which 28 towns are lakeshore covering 177 barangays and 32 non-lakeshore towns.

Laguna de Bay is trilobate lake with three corporate bays:  The West Bay, Central Bay and East Bay that converge towards the South carving out what resembles a large bird or dinosaur.  The West and Central Bays are separated by Talim Island, the largest and most populated of the nine islands within the lake.  It is bordered by the ruggedly high Sierra Madre mountain ranges on the Northeastern portion, the high Caliraya volcanic plateau in the East and the chains of mountains of Laguna and Batangas province to the South and Southeast, which includes Mt. Banahaw and Mt. Makiling.

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2.1.6

HYDROLOGY OF THE LAKE

The hydrology of the lake has a natural stage regime which in the dry season results in a minimum lake elevation of about 10.5 m. controlled by mean level in Manila Bay.  At the end of the dry season, the lake level may drop below the level of high tide in Manila Bay, resulting in the intrusion of seawater up the Pasig river.  With this diurnal reversal, the highly polluted waters of the Pasig river system are carried in the lake.  The tidal influx is also the primary cause of elevated salinity in the lake during this part of the year (Francisco, 1985).

During the wet season, precipitation results in an annual mean high water elevation of 12.5m. and a peak elevation which may reach as high as 14.6m for a 100 year recurrence interval.  During extremely wet years, widespread flood damage occurs along the lakeshores because the land is relatively flat for several kilometers inland in most areas.  Also during this period, the Marikina river floods the Pasig river and overflows into the Laguna de Bay via the Napindan Channel because the Marikina river can generate floodflows of about 200 m³s to 4000 m³s, and because the Pasig river bank full channel capacity varies from as little as 50 m³ to only about 750 m³s.  Depending upon the tide and local inflow, the Marikina river causes flooding in and around Metropolitan Manila.

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2.1.7

LAND USE

The total basin area of the lake is about 382,000 has. and this is commonly referred to as the Laguna de Bay Region.  The land being used for agriculture is approximately 198,640 has. which comprises 52% of the total land resources. At present, the forest area includes only 73,000 has.  Extensive deforestation has been reported (BCEOM, 1984)  where 54,000 has. between 1966 and 1977 had been transformed into unproductive grassland, with serious erosion hazard, involving sediment transport siltation problems thus, the remaining forest cover is only 19,000 hectares.

Moreover, around 83,620 has. is now being used for industries; 26,740 has. as built-up area, and 14,000 has. as lakeshore area.  The drainage basin includes about 3,600 square meters kms. of land composed of: urbanizing suburbs, spilling over from the Metropolitan Manila area: flatlands bordering the lake which are intensively farmed, predominantly for rice and sugarcane production; mountainous areas where bananas and coconuts are grown, and where timber is harvested and a large patch of hilly scrub and grassland in the lake’s denuded northern side (Francisco, 1985).

The lake region is also endowed with rich natural resources within its inland basin.  The Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve (MFR) approximately situated 6 kilometers from South Bay and 20- kms. from Talim Island is the nearest resource of its kind to the seat of government.  It is a 4,244-hectare resource designated primarily as a training laboratory under Republic Act 6967 for the advancement of scientific knowledge on natural resources.  It serves as a wildlife sanctuary and a pool for genetic diversity.  As an educational resource, the MFR has been the setting of floristic studies in the country by internationally famous botanists.  It is also the home of various academic, research and tourism institutions such as the UP Los Baños (UPLB), International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Boy Scouts of the Philippines (BSP), National Arts Center  (NAC) and “Pook ni Maria Makiling”.  (A Master Plan for the Mt. Makiling Reserve Area is currently being prepared by a counterpart Committee).

As a natural resource, it is considered a very important watershed providing irrigation, industrial and domestic water supply to numerous population of its surrounding communities.  The Reserve serves as an important catchment area for Laguna de Bay.  Along with forest lands, other resources include extractive opportunities for both metallic and non-metallic deposits.  Geothermal potential has also been established.  The Mt. Makiling-Banahaw geothermal resources is already developed and is being utilized to supplement the nation’s energy needs.

The natural resource endowments of Laguna de Bay Region being affected by rapid urbanization of Metropolitan Manila, such as rapid population growth, intensive agriculture, and industrialization, present a challenge to development planning.  The lake is the single most important resource of the region and to which all aspects of resource exploitation are vitally linked. (For greater detail of this subject, see Gedney, 1973; Lee and Adan, 1976 and Francisco, 1985).

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2.2.1

DEMOGRAPHY

The Region represents about 1.3% of the country’s land area, where about 13.8% of the nation’s population is concentrated.  In 1990, the actual population of the region, including Metropolitan Manila, was 8.3million (Table 2.01) with a growth rate of 3.13% and a population density in 1992 of 23.36 per ha. (LLDA, 1992).  The non-lakeshore areas’ population of 6.4 million as of 1990 will reach 10 million by the year 2000 (Table 2.02).  URSI projections (1989) also reveal that the 2 million lakeshore population will change significantly.

Based on the 1985 NSO Family Income and Expenditures Survey, the average annual family income in the Basin ranges from P35,000 to P116,566.  The main Basin areas, Rizal and Laguna, have average annual family incomes of P38,547 and P41,249 respectively.  These would generally apply to the lakeshore areas with individual incomes per lakeshore municipality within these baseline levels.  The average annual family incomes in Rizal and Laguna are significantly higher than the national average.  In 1985, the national income for the country stood at P31,052 (MEIP, 1994).

By the year 2000, the projected population by City, province and municipality is 12 million.  This growth and distribution in the watershed area is strongly influenced by the proximity of Metro Manila.  The more densely populated municipalities are located within or close to Manila.  The rate of increase in the province of Rizal and Laguna which, comprise the main portion of the region, was 5.8% and 3.9% respectively.  The high population growth rate is largely attributed to in-migration from the other regions of the country which results mainly from the perceived economic opportunities in Metropolitan Manila (Francisco, 1985).

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Because Metropolitan Manila is almost totally urbanized, the spill over into the rapidly urbanizing suburbs of Rizal and Laguna provinces has now resulted in the expansion of the Metropolis.  This expansion was concentrated in the Western Bay and has since extended to the southern extremity of the lake.  At present, the province of Rizal is about 85% urbanized while Laguna province is 50% urbanized.  This rapid urbanization, coupled with the high rate of in-migration, is associated with the region’s growing economic and social problems, as well as, the worsening environmental problems.

In terms of economic output, selected economic indicators reveal that Laguna de Bay Region produces a Gross Regional Domestic Product of P101.3 billion (GRDP, Region IV), a potential labor force of 6.1 in 1990 NCSO and is projected to reach 8.5 million by the year 2000 (Table 2.03). In addition, the total number of industrial establishments is increasing rapidly with a total number of 1,481 (LLDA, 1994).  The high trade export receipts of US$257.073 million covers 41.14% export receipts in the whole Region IV not to mention the output of P38.84 billion from industrial establishments of local and foreign investments (Sectoral Performance Report, 1991).  All these factors led to the suitability of the region for economic development.

In the early 80’s the region also produced more than 60% of nation’s total manufacturing.  In the region itself, the projected manufacturing and services for the year 2000 account for almost 86% while primary production (agriculture) accounts for only 6.6% (see Table 2.04).  The economic significance of this large difference in output should not, however, be over emphasized, for with more than three-fourths of the land in agrarian use, agriculture still retains considerable socio-economic importance.  Again, this should be fully appreciated when considering the present trend of rapid urbanization that is continually reducing the area of agricultural land.

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2.3.1

The fisheries of Laguna de Bay have been an outstanding economic resource from the lake since historic times, providing food for the lake basin population and the means of livelihood for approximately 17,000 fishermen residing in the various municipalities around the lake (LLDA Registration of Fisherment, 1992).  In 1970, the LLDA introduced an innovation in aquaculture technology to improve fish productivity of the lake.  Better known as the fishpen culture, this innovation proved to be highly profitable.

Today, the fishpen industry averages an annual yield of 6.7 metric tons/ha/cropping.  The industry attracted private investors which subsequently saw the lake teeming with fishpens.  With about 13,700 has. of the lake surface devoted to fishpen culture in 1994, approximately 91,809 tons of fish was produced from the lake (LLDA, 1994).

The boom in the lake fishery production has led to continuing conflict in the region.  The large scale fishpen culture has threathened the economic conditions of fishermen dependent upon open water catch.  Because investment in fishpen culture requires considerable amount of capitalization, the marginal fishermen could not afford to establish their own fishpens.  Traditional fishermen are battling for fishing grounds in the open water and this has been a major social conflict since the early eighties.  

Aside from lake occupancy, the fishermen are also demanding for the removal of the fishpen structures which, according to them, are affecting water circulation and contributing to water pollution.  This affects the distribution of nutrients such as nitrate and phosphate which are essential for the production of natural food in the lake.

Fishpen ownership is also an issue in the fisheries of Laguna de Bay.  Because fishpen industry has proven to be highly profitable, the small fishermen question the legitimacy of fishpen ownership, thereby demanding for proper allocation and distribution of the aquaculture area to include fishermen through cooperatives.  To date, there are 62 fishpens owned by fishermen cooperatives, equivalent to about 2,382 has., 187 structures owned by corporations or about 10,485 has. and 104 fishpens belong to individual-owners or an equivalent area of about 833 has. (LLDA, 1994).

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The lake also provides a transport route for lakeshore dwellers.  In 1982, there were over 4,162 motorized and non-motorized watercraft operating on the lake as a form of transport for lakeshore communities which are not easily accessible by road (Centeno, 1982). In addition, 19 barges are using the lake for barging an average of 73,078 lbs. of oil and oil products daily.

Residents from Talim Island travel by boat to various destinations around the lake.  The major routes, however, are the wharfs in Binangonan and Cardona in Rizal province and Calamba and Sta. Rosa in Laguna.

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The increase magnitude and uncontrolled flood in the Metropolitan Area paved the way for the construction of the Manggahan Floodway.  This floodway was constructed to connect Marikina River with the Laguna de Bay with the objective of easing up and mitigating the floods in Metropolitan Area, thus making the lake as a reservoir of flood waters.

As designed, the Manggahan Floodway has as estimated capacity of 2,400 m3/sec although the actual volume capacity during floods is only 2,000 m3/sec which is then diverted to the lake.  With length of about 9 km. from the Manggahan Floodway gate to the lake, it usually takes 8 hours to return to its normal level.  These estimates serves to contain the volume of water being poured down by both the upper and lower Marikina River which has a capacity of 800 m3 and 2,000 m3 respectively.

As a complement to this floodway, the Napindan Hydraulic Control  System (NHCS) was constructed in 1983 not only to regulate saline water intrusion from Manila Bay but also control the inflow of polluted water to the lake.

Simultaneous operation of these structures lessen the flood conditions in Metropolitan Manila by diverting peak flows of the Marikina River for temporary storage into Laguna Lake (Lee and Adan, 1976).  The construction of these structures has made the lake a floodwater reservoir (Francisco 1985).

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A pump storage hydroelectric power station has been operating in Kalayaan, Laguna about 60 kms. southeast of Manila.  The plant exploits the head between the Laguna de Bay and existing Caliraya Reservoir (a man-made lake near Kalayaan) which currently produces 300 megawatts of electricity. The Kalayaan plant have an expected generating capacity of 3,000 megawatts.

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2.5.5

The lake provides a source for recreational activities not only among lakeshore dwellers but also among tourists local and foreigners alike, although not on a commercial scale.

However, recent findings show that water quality has deteriorated.  According to the Environmental Management Bureau (EMB) classification of water surface, Class-C is only proper boating, sailing and the like activities.

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Waste Sink

The lake serves as a huge sink for waste coming from domestic sources (households and service sectors); non-point sources (surface run-off from urban areas, croplands and forest lands); industries, livestock and poultry production, fishery activities and Pasig River and Manggahan Floodway inflow.

The actual population of the Laguna de Bay region in 1990 was placed at 8.3 million.  Seventy six percent (76%) resides in non lakeshore municipalities while twenty four percent (24%) are located in lakeshore areas.  Almost 80% of the population resides in urbanized areas of the region.  Due to increasing demand for residential areas, more subdivisions mushroomed in the region.  By 1989, around 1,898 subdivisions were developed, most of these are concentrated in the west bay.

It was estimated that 60% of the total households discharge their solid and liquid wastes directly into the tributary rivers of the lake, thus, domestic sources account for 70% of the organic wastes discharged into the lake and for the highly pollutive leachate from solid wastes.

For croplands, average fertilizer application is estimated as follows:  palay - 72 kg. (irrigated), 48 kg. (non-irrigated) and corn - 89 kg. of this, 20% is estimated to end up in the lake.  With the completion of the irrigation projects in the region, pollution from croplands is expected to increase.

Sedimentation of the lake is attributed to the continuing soil erosion due to deforestation and also to poor agricultural practices within the basin.  The sedimentation rate is estimated at 1.5 million m3/year (SOGREAH 1991) with the Marikina River as a major contibutor of silt to the lake through the Manggahan Floodway.

There are 1481 (LLDA 1994) industries in the lake today.  Of these, 63% undertake pollution control measures or have wastewater treatment facilities.  In 1989, a survey by URSI revealed that 41% of the industries located in the region discharged increasing number of toxic and hazardouz substances.

Artificial feeds such as rice bran, bread crumbs, ice cream cones also contribute to polltuion in the lake.  From 35,000 has. of fihpen in 1983 to 10,701 has. to date, all of them are suspected of using artificial feeds, one can just imagine the pollutants generated.

Pollution also comes from the backflow of Pasig River bringing 930 tons or almost 20% of the total annual pollution Nitrogen load to the lake while phosphorous was estimated to be 420 tons (MEIP 1994).

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A basic need everywhere, providing water supply is a problem in a country with an expanding economy and a growing population.  The massive pollution expansion, aggravated by uncontrolled urbanization, placed demands on domestic water supply.

In the region, groundwater is a common source of water supply, but its reliability to sustain increasing demand has not been established.  In fact, receding groundwater level brought about be excessive extraction (overpumping) has been found to be an incipient problem in some municipalities in the region (LLDA 1978). Also, there is an increasing evidence of groundwater contamination (from leachate of dumpsites, septic tanks, etc.) thus making it imperative to use the lake as a domestic water supply source.  The potential volume of water that can be abstracted from the lake for domestic use is about 161.5 million cubic meters annually.  It has been programmed to be tapped as a new water source for the year 2000.  Utilizing the irrigation pumps of NIA located at Putatan, Muntinlupa, the MWSS project could provide water to Muntinlupa, Parañaque, Cavite City and nearby municipalities.  Approximately, 1.6 million people (1995) will be served by the said project initially.

At present, the MWSS project to supply for domestic water requirements of Taytay, Angono, Binangonan and Cardona in Rizal province is underway.  Called the Rizal Province Water Supply Improvement Project, it is expected to be fully operational by August of 1996.  With a capacity of 1,000 liters per second, it is being constructed from a Protocol Loan of 54 million French Francs.  Once the project is implemented, it is projected that about 36,000 m3/day would be abstracted.  This abstraction would result in a drop in water level of about 0.04 mm per day representing about 28% of the average annual inflow of water in the lake estimated at about 4.6 billion m3/year.

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Irrigation

The existence of extensive inland areas around the lake allows for another beneficial use of lakewater.  The lake has sufficient water for the year round irrigation of farmlands in lakeshore town as well as for some areas of adjacent Quezon and Cavite provinces.  The potential area that can be irrigated using lakewater is 102,456 has. Through irrigation, crop production will be intensified in the region to more than two crops per year and will facilitate the attainment of self sufficiency in rice production.  It is estimated that about 230 million m3/year will be abstracted from the lake to irrigate all targeted agricultural areas.

It should be noted, however, that with the present trend of urbanization, agricultural areas which are targeted for irrigation are now rapidly converted into industrial land uses.  Such trends in land development should be reviewed and adequate policies should be formulated and implemented to rationalize development directions in view of investments already made in certain irrigation projects.

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Aside from the demands for domestic water supply, the lake is also being used as a source of cooling water for the industries around the lakeshores.  More than 2.04 billion cubic meters of lakewater is used annually for industrial cooling.  Seventy percent (70%) is used by the power generating plants of the National Power Corporation (Malaya  TPP, Sucat TPP and Kalayaan HPP), four percent (4%) by the Phil. Petroleum Corporation refinery in Pililla, Rizal and the rest by some industries surrounding the lake.

Cooling water is recycled back into the lake taking with it some pollutants which could be considered negligible, although, thermal pollution results in the process.  Thermal pollution measurement is reported to result in about 2 oC rise in the temparature in areas near the discharge points of the thermal power plants.

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The problems brought about by rapid urbanization, pollution from industrialization and a growing population, have led to the evolution of a resource management institutional framework for Laguna de Bay.  In the early 1960s because of perceived threats from the rapidly changing character of the lake region, political leaders in the area sought the enactment of legislation to control and manage the resources of the lake.  The specific problems perceived were socio-economic in nature and dealt mainly with the observed decreased in fish yield; the proliferation of industries along the lakeshores; deteriorating water quality as a result of pollution and algal bloom; poor living standards and rapidly increasing population growth.  In view of these problems, and through the initiative of former Congressmen Frisco F. San Juan (Author) and Wenceslao Rancap Lagumbay (Co-Author), a Bill was presented to the House of Representatives of the Philippine Congress.  During deliberations, the proposed Bill gained favorable acceptance.  This motivated Senators Helena Benitez and Lorenzo Sumulong to present the Bill to the Philippine Senate.  In the Senate, there were practically no arguments presented against the Bill.  Hence, on 18 July 1966, through a concerted effort, the Bill was finally approved by the Philippine Congress as Republic Act 4850, thereby creating the Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA), (Francisco, 1985).

The move to seek the enactment of R.A. 4850 was precisely intended to create an instrument to facilitate rational utilization of the lake resources.  It was perceived that the creation of an “Authority” would facilitate cooperation and coordination and a pooling of resources among national government agencies, local governments and the private sector.  In response to the problems in the region, as well as national goals for economic development, the LLDA was created.  By virtue of R.A. 4850, a policy was declared which gave LLDA the task to:

“... lead, promote and accelerate the development and balanced growth of the Laguna de Bay area and the surrounding provinces, cities and towns hereinafter referred to as the region, within the context of the national plans and policies for social and economic development.”

The LLDA  was created as a quasi-government agency with powers and functions to act as a corporation.  Thus, on 06 October 1969, the first stockholders meeting was held with the subsequent election of its Board of Directors and the subsequent election of the Rizal Provincial Governor, Isidro Rodriguez, as Chairman of the Board (LLDA Annual Report, 1980).

The Act conferred upon LLDA the jurisdiction to execute its powers and functions in the Laguna de Bay region.  As defined by the Act, the region comprised the provinces of Rizal and Laguna including San Pablo City and the cities of Manila, Pasay, Quezon and Caloocan.  Through this empowering legislation, LLDA established the legal and administrative bases of its operation and slowly developed its technical capabilities.  On 16 March 1970, LLDA took over the function as Cooperating Agency for the “UNDP Feasibility Survey for the Hydraulic Control of Laguna de Bay Complex and Related Development Activities” (LLDA Annual Report, 1980).

The findings of the UNDP paved the way towards a more responsible role for LLDA in terms of planning and development in the region.  The study recommended further evaluation of vital programs which included lake fishery, lake water quality, water supply, industrial estate planning and irrigation.  Among the major issues that justified the need for in-depth studies of the lake were those related to water quality hazards which hindered utilization of the lake’s resources for development purposes.  Although these studies mainly outlined specific technical matters, the recommendations explicitly considered institutional matters.

In 1968, while the UNDP studies were being initiated, a growing concern for environmental awareness had been developing amongst leaders and politicians in the country.  In August 1969, the Seventh Congress of the Republic of the Philippines in their first session endorsed and approved a House Joint Resolution which sought the establishment of a comprehensive system of “environmental planning” as one way through which social and economic policies enunciated in Congress may be achieved.

Two years later, on 14 October 1971, in accordance with the policies on Environmental Planning, Senator Helena Benitez introduced in the Philippine Senate a proposal to amend Republic Act 4850.  The proposed amendment sought to add in the “declaration of policy, a statement that:

“It shall also be the policy of the Authority (LLDA) to carry out the development of the Laguna Lake area with due regard and adequate provisions in all the developmental projects within the area for environmental management and control, preservation of the quality of human life and ecological systems and the prevention of undue ecological disturbance, deterioration and pollution.”

(Senate Paper No. 561; 1971:  Seventh

Congress, Third Special Session)

The move to amend R.A. 4850 was finally realized on 17 October, 1975, by the issuance of Presidential Decree (PD) 813 based on the following considerations:

1.

The urban expansion of Metro Manila, combined with the current and intended uses of the lake, had created deep concern among the government and the general public over the impact of development on the Laguna de Bay and its tributaries;

2.

The continuing deterioration of the lake induced by inflow of polluted water from Pasig River and industrial, domestic and agricultural wastes from urbanizing and built-up areas around the lake;

3.

The floods in Metro Manila and the lakeshore towns were being influenced by the hydraulic system of Laguna de Bay and its river systems;

4.

The deficiencies and ambiguities in the provisions of R.A. 4850 were found to impede the Accomplishment of the Authority’s goals; and

5.

There were other government agencies exercising varying degrees of jurisdiction and control of the lake, resulting in problems of coordination, planning and management, thereby creating a constraint on the Authority to plan and implement its objectives.

On 16 December 1983, despite PD 813 which had already strengthened the charter for lake management, the President issued Executed Order No. 927.  The national government felt the need to further improve the institutional capabilities of LLDA to rationalize the allocation of resources in response to the demands of various users.  The Executive Order further defined certain functions and granted additional powers to LLDA.  This more significantly included the Authority to modify and improve the organizational structure, the extension of the scope of jurisdiction and the power to issue standards, rules and regulations pertaining to aspects of pollution control.  (The preceding discussions were based from Francisco, 1985).

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For Laguna de Bay, the legal rules for managing the resources evolved in three major stages:

The first stage was the creation of a lake management agency through the enactment of R.A. 4850.  The Act was passed to rationalize the uncontrolled and underutilized resources which was threatened by the spillover effects of  urbanization, industrial pollution and a growing population.  The Act provided the necessary decision-making process at the regional level to facilitate cooperation and coordination among different sectors.  The Laguna Lake Development Authority was created by this Act to promote and accelerate the development and balanced growth of the Laguna de Bay area.

The second stage was the proclamation of PD 813 which sought to amend R.A. 4850.  The Presidential Decree was issued to remedy the deficiencies and ambiguities in the previous Act which were found to impede the accomplishment of the objectives defined for the LLDA.  This amending Decree provided a better-defined statutory system for the decision-making process.  The power to issue necessary permits or clearances in the use of the lake, as well as the power to institute necessary legal proceedings, was defined at this level for the LLDA to implement.  As an expression of the central government’s basic policies, the amendment defined the relationship of LLDA with the NEDA and other central government agencies.  This reinforced the integration of the LLDA with the central decision-making body in government.  The third stage was the issuance of Executive Order No. 927 which further defined certain functions and specified additional powers for the LLDA.  The Executive Order provided the LLDA with the authority to modify and improve its structure.  (This was, however, not realized up to the present administration).  It also extended the scope of its jurisdiction.  A strengthened statutory system was defined which granted the LLDA the power to issue standards, rules and regulations pertaining to specific aspects of pollution control.

Within the provisions of the three statutory stages mentioned above, there are several institutional mechanisms which specifically define the limits of policy decision-making by LLDA.  The significant role given to the President and the strong influence of the National Economic and Development Authority on the policy decision-making process in Laguna de Bay clearly indicate these limits.  A review of the provisions of the legislation, particularly PD 813, explicitly shows the strict reference to the need for approval of NEDA and other central government agencies, and/or the President of practically all actions undertaken by the LLDA.

More recently, through Executive Order 149 (28 December 1993) the administrative supervision over LLDA was transferred to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources.  This recent move remains an institutional question in terms of its constitutionality.

The essential provisions of the policy and Legal Mandates of LLDA are presented below.

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COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

The amending legal framework (PD 813) specifies for the LLDA to undertake a comprehensive survey of the physical and natural resources and potential of the region, particularly the socio-economic conditions, the development of resources and the regional problems.  On the basis of this survey, the Authority is compelled to draft a comprehensive and detailed plan with the objective of promoting the region’s rapid socio-economic development.  The implementation of such a plan as required by PD 813, is subject to the approval of the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA).  Furthermore, the implementation of plans relating to fisheries are specifically subject to the prior consensus of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) in order to make it consistent with the national fisheries plan (P.D. 813 Section 2(a), 1975).

LLDA was, however, not successful in this respect due to inherent institutional constraints such as lack of resources and trained personnel to undertake regional planning.

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Coordination of Plans

The legal framework bestowed upon LLDA the power to approve or disapprove all proposals and development activities within the lake region.  Relating to the approval of proposals, LLDA is granted the authority to issue necessary permits or clearances, provided such proposals are in consonance with those of the Authority and provided that these will not contribute to the unmanageable  pollution of Laguna de Bay.  In the implementation of this policy, LLDA is empowered to exact fees from proponents for the processing of such plans, programmes and projects.  Furthermore, the LLDA is granted the right to institute necessary legal proceedings against those who implement any project/plan/program in the region without the necessary clearance from the Authority.  However, for disapproved proposals, the LLDA may refer the proponents to appeal to NEDA within fifteen days from its decision.  These mechanisms were intended to facilitate the coordination of plans and procedures, with respect to Laguna de Bay, between the LLDA, the national and local government offices and public corporations for the purpose of drawing up a Laguna de Bay development plan.  For integration, this development plan becomes binding upon all parties concerned upon approval by the NEDA Board. (P.D. 813 section 2(d), 1975).

In respect to the above, there are overlapping functions and lack of coordination with the permit system of the DENR, DTI and the HLURB and the Local Government Units.

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Infrastructure Financing

When so required within the context of the development plans and programs in the region, the LLDA is complelled to plan, finance and/or undertake infrastructure projects such as river, flood and tidal control works, waste water and sewerage works, water supply, roads, port works, irrigation, housing and related works.  For any project financed wholly or in part by the LLDA, it is authorized to collect reasonable fees and tolls from beneficiaries in order to recover costs of construction, operation and maintenance of the project.  However, the amounts of such fees and tolls are subject to the approval of the NEDA Board.  Infrastructure projects which are classified by NEDA as “social overhead capital projects” can undertaken by the Authority with financial assistance from central government.  However, such projects shall be subjected to such terms and conditions that may be imposed by the government, upon the recommendation of the NEDA Board. (P.D. 813 section 2(f), 1975).

The major infrastructure projects so far completed are the Manggahan Floodway and the Napindan Hydraulic Control Structure.  However, it is sad to note that LLDA did not play a major role in these projects.  The irrigation projects of NIA  and the power projects of NAPOCOR should also have yielded some income to LLDA in terms of user fees due from water derived from the lake.  However, up to this point, such fees from abstracting lake waters have yet to be completely agreed upon through a Memorandum of Agreement.

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Lake Fisheries

For the purpose of effectively regulating and monitoring activities in Laguna de Bay, the Authority was granted exclusive jurisdiction to issue a new permit for the use of lake waters for any project or activities in or affecting the lake including navigation, construction and operation of fish pens, fish enclusures, fish corrals and the like.  To achieve this purpose, it can impose necessary safeguards for lake quality control and management and to collect necessary fees for said activities and projects.  Fees collected for fisheries may be shared between the Authority, other government agencies and local government authorities in such proportion as the President may determine.  Subject to Presidential approval, the Authority was also empowered to promulgate rules and regulations which govern fisheries development activities in Laguna de Bay. (P.D. 813 section 3(k), 1975).

While the above provision has been exercised, the recent enactment of the New Local Government Code (RA 7160) created some degree of confusion as to the authority of Local Government Units over municipal waters and fishing grounds.  The Central government, the legislature and ultimately the Supreme Court have yet to act on the issue to resolve such legal impasse.

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Water Quality Standards

The legal framework specifies that LLDA should act in coordination with existing government agencies in establishing water quality standards for industrial, agricultural and municipal waste discharges.  These standards are to be enforced in cooperation with said existing agencies, or they can be separately pursued by the Authority.  Penalty actions are provided elsewhere in the Act for the enforcement of such standards.  Any conflict on the appropriate water quality standard to be enforced is to be resolved through the NEDA Board (P.D. 813 section 3(n), 1975).

So far LLDA has been cooperating with the DENR through the EMB along this line.  The LLDA has yet to develop its own water quality standards for the lake in view of its unique characteristics and its huge assimilative capacity.  While coordination exist, it should be clear with DENR regional offices that LLDA is the Authority in the Lake Region.

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Financial/Managerial Control

The key influence of the legal framework is embodied in the provisions of Section 25, PD 813.  For budgetary control, the Authority has to submit audited financial statements to NEDA within sixty days after the close of the fiscal year.  For management control, the NEDA may at its own instance, initiate a management audit of the authority when there are reasonable grounds to believe that the Authority has been mismanaged.  The NEDA reserves the right to take appropriate measures as may be required should the audit indicate mismanagement.  (P.D. 813 section 25, 1975).

This provision was never observed, however, the necessary administrative action has been traditionally exercised by the DBM.

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Organizational Structure

The legal framework also defines the structure at the organizational level.  Executive Order 927 allowed the Authority to modify its structure, providing for the creation of the position of Deputy General Manager; upgrading the existing divisions into departments; and regrouping departments into offices.  More significantly, the composition of the Board of Directors for the Authority has been increased to ten members consisting: a representative of the office of the President; the Secretary of Economic Planning; the Secretary of Natural Resources; the Secretary of Trade and Industry; a representative of Laguna Province; a representative of Rizal Province; a representative of the Governor of the Metro Manila Commission; the President of the Laguna Lake Federation of Mayors, Inc.; a representative of the private investors; and the General Manager of the Laguna Lake Development Authority.  The General Manager for LLDA and the representative of the private investors are both appointed by the President. (E.O No. 927 section (1) and (5), 1983).

Organizational restructuring has yet to be realized.  Since its creation in 1969, LLDA has remained with its organizational framework, albeit with limited changes.  The magnitude and scope of its functions and the expectations of the general public for it to accomplish its objectives, it is of primary importance that central government should act to upgrade and strengthen the organizational capability of LLDA.

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To effectively regulate and monitor activities in the Laguna de Bay region, the Authority is granted exclusive jurisdiction to issue permits for the use of all surface water for any project of activities affecting the said region.  For clarity of purpose, it was defined that the term “Laguna de Bay Region” shall refer to the Provinces of Rizal and Laguna; the cities of San Pablo, Pasay, Caloocan, Quezon, Manila and Tagaytay; the towns of Silang and Carmona in Cavite Province; the town of Lucban in Quezon Province; and the towns of Marikina, Pasig, Taguid, Muntinlupa and Pateros in Metro Manila. (E.O. No. 927 section (2), 1983).

While the jurisdiction of LLDA is clearly defined, it lacks the recognition it deserves from the LGUs, regional offices of the Central government as well as national agencies who should recognize it as special agency in charge of a special sub-region essential to national development.

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THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND OPERATIONS OF LLDA

While policies are expressed and relationships are defined by the legal framework, the organizational structure gives meaning and substance to those policies and relationships.  In effect, it puts institutions into form.  The institutionalization of the legal and policy framework is characterized by the functional and structural nature of the policy-decision making system at the organizational level within LLDA.

To give essence and substance to the mandate of its empowering Act, the LLDA sought a lead role in the region.  Taking off from the findings and recommendations of the UNDP studies in Laguna de Bay, the LLDA, in cooperation with various international agencies, undertook in-depth studies on lake fisheries, water quality, water supply, industrial estate planning and irrigation.  These comprehensive studies resulted in the formulation of various programs and projects.

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The LLDA Board of Directors

Structurally, the LLDA is directed by a Board of Directors which sets the policies for the operational level.  The Board of Directors acts to exercise the corporate powers vested in the Authority.  One of the major functions of the Board of Directors, as set forth in the legal framework, is “to formulate, prescribe, amend and repeal rules and regulations to govern the conduct of business of the Authority”

 (P.D. 813, Section 25.A(a), 1975)

 Based upon this function,  the LLDA formulated rules and regulations for the management and use of resources in Laguna de Bay.  A major example of policy which have been formulated and implemented is the “Rules and Regulations Governing the Construction and Operation of Fishpens of Fish Enclosures in Laguna de Bay” issued in 1976 and in 1983 the Lake Fisheries Zoning and Management Plan (ZOMAP).  To ensure the implementation of these rules and regulations, the LLDA can enlist the assistance of the judicial system through its corporate powers.  Penal provisions have been provided to give legal status to the organizational policies.  Likewise, the organizational set-up of LLDA includes a Legal Division which is charged with operationalizing the judicial process.

One of the striking aspects of the LLDA Board is the apparent dominance of central government representation.  Of the ten members that constitute the Board, four members are direct representatives of central government agencies.  Another two members indirectly represent central government.  The General Manager of LLDA and the representative of private investors, are both subject to Presidential appointment.  The remaining four members are representatives of the local governments in the region.  Apart from these local government representatives, who are indirectly elected by the public, there is no representation for interest groups from the region.  The absence of such representation in the policy-decision making process neglects one of the essential component in institutional arrangements for resource management.

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To carry out its activities, the Authority was originally organized into seven divisions under the direct supervision of a General Manager and assisted by an Assistant General Manager.  These divisions are:  the Administrative Division, Legal Division, Finance Division, Project Management Division, Engineering and Construction Division, Environmental Protection Division and the Planning and Project Development Division.  In 1990, the Corporate Management Services Office, the Lake Management Division and the Community Development Division were created thereby modifying the organization structure to address the problems in the fishpen industry and the lakeshore communities.  Organizational structure.

The agency should have been reorganized.  However, this did not materialize due to central government inaction.  More recently, a new proposal is in the process of being finalized for submission to and approval by the Office of the President.

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3.1.4

In Laguna de Bay, central government agencies also play an important role in the policy-decision making process.  Although the influence of these agencies is indirect, their role has been explicitly or implicitly defined in the legal framework.  The National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) and the DENR are the most significant government agencies which strongly influence the policy-decision making process in Laguna de Bay.  

Other central government agencies involved in the management of the lake’s resources mainly assist or advise the Authority in its activities.  Figure 3.3 shows the various agencies operating in the lake in various areas of concerns and in varying functional activities.

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It has been pointed out that representation of legitimate interest groups in the policy-decision making process is an important social value in institutional arrangements.  Furthermore, a criterion for an “ideal” arrangement is one that would provide legislative and institutional mechanisms  not only to permit but to ensure public access and involvements.

In the lake region, the only vocal sectors are the fishermen and farmers who are relatively better organized.  Their concerns are primarily on lake fisheries and inundation of agricultural areas.  These concerns are largely socio-economic and partly environmental.  More recently a growing concern on environmental issues have shown an increasing participation from communities affected by industrial pollution.  Such involvement are, however, very limited.

The lake management agency is perceived as a non-political entity in the region.  It is not an arena of political activity to most people.  Generally, views from the public are aired through the existing local government units, such as the Municipal Council of the Provincial Board.  The absence of a formal relationship between LLDA planning units and local government planning units accounts for low participation of various groups of the population in the policy-decision making process of LLDA.  An institutional mechanism should therefore be developed to allow public input in the policy-decision making process (Francisco, 1985).

In the lake, the impetus for public involvement comes from public agencies, especially from professionals within these agencies who are trained to perceive and anticipate changes that may take place.  Depending on the political significance of any activity, professionals normally press the need to include situational analysis, needs analysis, socio-economic surveys, perception assessment, etc. in their recommendations.  Results of consultative discussions are then reported to decision-makers through the operational  level  of  the decision hierarchy.  Depending on the strength of recommendations as well as the political significance of the proposal, appropriate policy changes are instituted (Francisco, 1985).

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3.2.1

In general, the resources of the lake area will be managed within the concept of an integrated lake basin approach to resource management.  The ultimate objective is to ensure that social and economic development activities put primary consideration on the conservation and protection of the lake ecosystems and environmental conditions of the whole lake basin.

However, in the process of development and resource utilization, there are conflicting interest that come to play within government between and among the interest of the central government, the regional interest, and the local municipal interest.  This could be illustrated using three examples below.

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3.2.1.1

Dominant Use Policy

According to government policy, the lake is programmed to be source of domestic water supply in the near future not only for the regional populace but also for Metropolitan Manila where the seat of central government is located.  However, if we are to listen to the fishermen population around the lake, it should be for open lake fisheries and that it should be free from fishpen structures.  On the other hand, certain municipal governments would insist that the fishpens remain because they provide income to the local government through their share in fishpen fees.

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3.2.1.2

Flood Control

In order to protect Metropolitan Manila from flooding, the Manggahan Floodway was constructed to divert floodwaters from the Marikina River into the lake thereby protecting the residents of communities around the Pasig River which include Malacañang Palace.  Such diversion of floodwaters would result in the inundation  of lakeshore municipalities in Laguna de Bay causing damage to agricultural lands, as well as health and properties of the regional population.

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3.2.1.3

Solid Waste Management

Garbage disposal is one of the biggest problems in Metropolitan Manila today.  Ironically, it is also one of the growing concerns in the Laguna de Bay Region.  The absence of the space for additional dumpsites in the Metropolis  led to the construction of the San Mateo Sanitary Landfill in Rizal and the Carmona Sanitary Landfill in Cavite.  Both sites are within the lake watershed basin, however, such dumpsites are not intended for the lake region populace.  At present, many municipalities suffer from lack of solid waste disposal system and the solution  to the problem requires a regional approach.  Unfortunately, no municipalities would at their own expense accept the garbage of their own municipalities considering the detrimental effects to health and environment.  Yet the sanitary landfills in San Mateo and Carmona are the proof of how the interest of the region is sacrificed for Metro Manila.  At what social and environmental cost this would take and at whose expense?

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DELINEATION OF POWER, AUTHORITY, RESPONSIBILITY AND JURISDICTION

Institutional problems associated with the confusion over the delineation of power, authority, responsibility and jurisdiction can be seen as both functional and territorial.

3.2.2.1

Functional

Several government agencies have some degree of jurisdiction  in the Laguna de Bay basin.  Some agencies include the basin in the scope of their activities and there is complexity of roles among agencies.  In many instances, there is overlapping or duplication of functions while in some cases there is fragmentation and virtually lack of coordination.  For example, there is too much over lapping in terms of planning and regulatory functions yet there is limited coordination in the enforcement of laws.

The overlapping responsibilities of major agencies can be seen in Fig. 3.3 (Malayang 1993) as well as in the Fig 3.4 (URSI 1993).   In terms of  functional responsibilities, there is confusion in the development planning , enforcement of  laws as well as setting of environmental standards.  Likewise, coordination problem exist in terms of project implementation such as in infrastructure development, fishery resource development, water resources, socio-economic development and  environmental management.

Certainly, within such a maze of overlapping roles and responsibilities there is likelihood of confusion and hiding from responsibility.  When there is lack of caring, for whatever reason, these conditions are characteristic of both agencies and individuals.  However, within the interest of these same agencies and personnel, there also lies enormous opportunities, although one must caution that recognition of potential may lead, also to competition for resources.  The key to developing such opportunities seems to be meaningful and balance participation.  If agencies and organizations feel that they have an active role in decision making, the realization of mutual gain can turn confusion and irresponsible attitudes into a cooperative application of their shared resources.  Similarly, recognizing that opportunity for personnel achievement lies within shared interest provide a powerful stimulus to develop a cohesive human resources.

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3.2.2.2

Territorial

The above confusion pertaining to power, authority, responsibility and jurisdiction is also affected by territorial or spatial factors.  For one thing, the lake is within various political jurisdictions.  Foremost is the fact that it is a “special sub-region” in Region IV, however, it is not treated as such by the regional offices of national government agencies.  Its concerns are treated either as a provincial concern of Rizal or Laguna province but never as a lake region.

Secondly, the topographical basin boundaries of the lake trancends several provinces which include also certain towns in Batangas, Cavite, Quezon and Metro Manila.  While there are upstream and downstream implications of socio-economic activities in certain localities, these are not addressed as a lake region/lake basin concern but as local municipal or provincial concern by people who have neither regard nor accountability on the impacts of certain decisions on the lake.

A third concern is the lack of perception by the regional population on the ecological principles of managing the lake and its watershed basin.  The basic fact that everything in the watershed basin drains into the lake is not recognized by people and decision-makers when they disregard the environmental implications of human activities.  The denudation of forest, the inadequately planned construction of subdivisions, the indiscriminate dumping of garbage in open lots or rivers and many others create pressure on the ecology of the lake and its watershed.

From the foregoing issues raised, it is therefore essential that institutional arrangements which clearly define power, authority, responsibility and jurisdiction over certain functions and territories be developed.  Where there are inconsistencies and confusion, these should be adequately and appropriately addressed.  Central to this would be the role of LLDA as the agency mandated to manage Laguna de Bay.  However, extremely essential to this issue is how government agencies, central or local regard the LLDA as the coordinating agency that would orchestrate and link all activities in managing the Laguna de Bay and its watershed. 

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SECTORAL CONFLICTS OF INTEREST

A major part of institutional problems in Laguna de Bay arise out of sectoral conflicts and interest pertaining to access to and allocation of regional resources.  Because the lake has the character of a common property resource, it can accommodate multiple uses which are at times conflicting and competing.  For example, as earlier pointed out, there is a conflict between small fishermen engaged in open lake fishing with those of the fishpen operators who have now occupied a large portion of their traditional fishing ground.  Likewise, there is competition for space in the lake among groups of fishermen because of the limited space and increasing pressure brought about by their growing population.  Another issue of conflict is the dominant use of the lake which according to central government should be for domestic water supply while the fishermen and fishpen operators want it to be for fisheries.

Such sectoral conflicts and interests should be properly studied so that appropriate policy instruments and institutional arrangements are developed to properly and equitably allocate and provide access to regional resources.

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PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN DECISION-MAKING

The process of decision-making in Laguna de Bay is characterized by the inadequacy of public participation in the LLDA.  While the composition of the Board of Directors include both local and central government, it cannot be safely assured that there is adequate public participation. It has been pointed out that there should be sectoral representation among fishermen, farmers, industry, and others within the LLDA Board.

Moreover, there is common perception among the basin populace that there is very little public participation due to a limited consultation process.  As such policy decisions are perceived to be ineffective because these are not seen to represent a shared vision or common purpose of the various stakeholders in the lake region.  These issues need to be addressed to the highest levels of the decision hierarchy both in the legislative and executive branches of government.

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While LLDA was mandated through R.A. 4850 to manage the development of the Laguna de Bay Region, it has inherent organizational constraints which need to be addressed.  These institutional constraints which limit the responsiveness of LLDA as a regional development agency are presented below.

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Organizational Strengthening and Restructuring

This is long overdue.  The current organizational structure of LLDA is no longer responsive to meet its enormous task.  Since its creation in 1969  as an office, the agency was never reorganized except for minor modification in staffing pattern.  It operates with very limited manpower due to frequent turnover or personnel which is affected by the relatively low compensation and limited incentives.  Position classification of its technical staff has to be upgraded and compensation schemes must be  improved to make the agency a more attractive employer.  A comprehensive reorganization program should finalized to address this issue.

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For the past 25 years since it was organized, the LLDA has had ten (10) General Managers.  Simply put, there was on the average a change of administration every 2 1/2 years.  The frequent change in the top management play a vital role in the operation of LLDA.  Such a change in management have also been to a large extent influenced by changes in the Presidency of the country.   For every in the country’s top leadership, there is an automatic change in LLDA management  since this is a politically appointed office.  If this trend is not corrected (not only in LLDA but in many government agencies), there will never be a continuity of efforts in the management of the Laguna de Bay Region.

Neophytes appointed to LLDA would normally require about two (2) years to learn the ropes.  But more often than not, General Managers would impose on their views without consideration of previous plans and programs.  By the time they get to appreciate the issues and match these with their intentions, they are already on their way out for  a change to a new administration.

Moreover, the sad part is the coterie of advisers and cordon sanitaire that normally accompany every change in LLDA management. Many of the original and technically trained senior staff get boxed out in the decision-making process where policy decision more often than not are made with very limited or inappropriate technical bases. This brings about failure in policy implementation and frustration among senior personnel.  The worst effect would be the the exodus of such trained personnel for whom the government have spent time and resources to educate and prepare for such technical expertise.

Furthermore, because such political appointees lack the appropriate technical background and foresight, discontinuity of programs and misguided planning normally result in overspending, overspread deployment of resources (due to politicking and accommodation of protégés) and lack of focus or attention to strategic issues.

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While the LLDA has a corporate character, its revenues are not adequate to support its social overhead projects.  Revenues from regulatory functions are not also adequate to support its environmental quality monitoring efforts.  Socio-economic development efforts, such as community organizing, public information, education and motivation campaign for environmental awareness, river clearing operations, cooperatives development are activities that require financial resources which LLDA has been subsidizing on its own in the past two decades.  National government  subsidy is essential for LLDA to meet its social commitments and developmental objectives.

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Equipment Upgrading

There is a need for extensive replacement and rehabilitation of laboratory and field equipment and facilities in order for LLDA to effectively undertake its monitoring activities as part of its regulatory functions.  Monitoring and surveying equipment, water crafts an transport vehicles are inadequate and laboratory equipment are outmoded, although the LLDA laboratory used to be among the best in Asia in the 1970s.  Moreover, LLDA need to keep abreast with updated technology in monitoring, surveying and laboratory analysis.

It should be noted that at present LLDA does not have any watercraft to patrol the 90,000 hectares of surface water to monitor activities in the lake.

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3.2.5.5

Inadequate/conflicting Quasi-judicial Authority

Related to overlapping, duplication and fragmentation amongst government agencies, LLDA is perceived to be weak in terms of its quasi-judicial authority.  Its ability to enforce its regulatory functions has been questioned due to conflicts with other agencies and inadequacy of its policy instruments.  Moreover, this has been exacerbated by various institutional constraints such as those earlier identified.

There is need to streamline the permits and licensing system in view of limited manpower and monitoring equipment.  Considering the huge volume of water and the expanse of the lake region, it is also essential for LLDA to develop a separate environmental quality standards.  Such standards should be tied up with the assimilative capacity of the lake.  The regulatory function should also be reviewed to look into the appropriateness of fees, fines and penalties imposed on use of environmental resources and violations of environmental laws.  This should all be tied up with a package of economic incentives and  disincentives to ensure equity and efficiency in resource use as well as compliance with rules and regulations for managing the lake basin and its resources.  A primary example is the appropriateness of the P5,000 administrative fine imposed by LLDA.

Another issue is the absence of police powers to ensure enforcement of rules and regulations promulgated by LLDA.  While many are of the opinion that enforcement could be achieved through coordination with relevant police agencies, still many believe the LLDA should be granted with limited police powers akin to an environmental police.

Another area of concern is the formulation and approval of developmental plans.  Other government agencies and LGUs prepare plans and programs without due regard to LLDA’s thrusts and directions.  While the R.A. 4850 provides such mandate for LLDA to approve plans and programs within the region, such was never really exercised apart from individual business proponents who are required to secure LLDA clearance as a form of approval.

In view of the foregoing, there is an important necessity to  undertake a thorough review of LLDA’s legal mandates and come up with a legislative agenda to correct, reinforce and/or strengthen the authority of LLDA in the region.

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4.1.1

The water quality monitoring of Laguna de Bay and its tributaries started in 1973 as part of the Water Quality Management Program of the LLDA.  Lake sampling (Figure 4.1) is done twice a month while sampling of major tributaries is done once a month (Sampling Stations).  Through this regular monitoring program, the relative environmental quality of the lake and its basin is established.  Various parameters are measured to provide indicators on the state of environmental quality of not only the lake itself but the level of environmental degradation in the watersheds where pollutants and nutrients originate and which are transported through surface run-off into the rivers and streams that drain into the lake.  Presented below are major water quality issues and indicators which amply describe the state of the environmental quality in the lake and its watershed basin.

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4.1.1.1

Eutrophication

Eutrophication is the process of aging by a body of water due to the presence of excessive nutrients which results in abundant plant growth like algae.

The cultural eutrophication of the lake happens as a result of increasing nutrient wasteloads from domestic households, expanded agricultural and livestock production, intensive fishpen operations, and soil erosion from denuded watersheds.

The level of eutrophication is normally measured by the nitrogen and phosphorus levels which determine the flow of nutrients into the lake.  A review of literature on nitrogen losses and environmental quality of the lake made in 1972 (SOGREAH, 1973) revealed that nitrogen flows out directly with run-off water under conditions where the rate of nitrogen application is high; the topography is sloping; the rainfall is intense; plant cover is low; and, the soils have low rates of infiltration.

A trend analysis of data shows that the average nutrient load for the period of 1978-1984 has increased by 10.8% for nitrogen and 24% for phosphorus.  Maintaining these increased rates, total inflow of nutrients to the lake today should be about 5,500 t/year Nitrogen and 1,200 t/year Phosphorus (SOGREAH, 1991).

Water quality monitoring of the lake and its tributaries shows that the major cause of increase of nutrients to the lake was mainly resulting from tremendous deterioration of the two rivers namely the San Pedro River and Morong River.  In San Pedro River (between 1973 and 1983), yearly loads increased by 400% for nitrogen and 600% for phosphorus.  In Morong River, such increase was a result of draining effluents from hog farms (SOGREAH, 1991).

More recently, the San Cristobal River (Calamba, Laguna) is said to have deteriorated much and is now considered as one of the major sources of nutrient loading.

Eutrophication results in the general deterioration of water quality as indicated by algal blooms and subsequent die-offs resulting to oxygen depletion and the occurrence of fishkills thereby causing a reduction in the lake’s fish productivity.

Eutrophication is the process of aging by a body of water due to the presence of excessive nutrients which results in abundant plant growth like algae.

The cultural eutrophication of the lake happens as a result of increasing nutrient wasteloads from domestic households, expanded agricultural and livestock production, intensive fishpen operations, and soil erosion from denuded watersheds.

The level of eutrophication is normally measured by the nitrogen and phosphorus levels which determine the flow of nutrients into the lake.  A review of literature on nitrogen losses and environmental quality of the lake made in 1972 (SOGREAH, 1973) revealed that nitrogen flows out directly with run-off water under conditions where the rate of nitrogen application is high; the topography is sloping; the rainfall is intense; plant cover is low; and, the soils have low rates of infiltration.

A trend analysis of data shows that the average nutrient load for the period of 1978-1984 has increased by 10.8% for nitrogen and 24% for phosphorus.  Maintaining these increased rates, total inflow of nutrients to the lake today should be about 5,500 t/year Nitrogen and 1,200 t/year Phosphorus (SOGREAH, 1991).

Water quality monitoring of the lake and its tributaries shows that the major cause of increase of nutrients to the lake was mainly resulting from tremendous deterioration of the two rivers namely the San Pedro River and Morong River.  In San Pedro River (between 1973 and 1983), yearly loads increased by 400% for nitrogen and 600% for phosphorus.  In Morong River, such increase was a result of draining effluents from hog farms (SOGREAH, 1991).

More recently, the San Cristobal River (Calamba, Laguna) is said to have deteriorated much and is now considered as one of the major sources of nutrient loading.

Eutrophication results in the general deterioration of water quality as indicated by algal blooms and subsequent die-offs resulting to oxygen depletion and the occurrence of fishkills thereby causing a reduction in the lake’s fish productivity.

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During dry months a flow reversal takes place in the Pasig River, with the result that saline and polluted water from Manila Bay and Greater Manila Area enter the lake in large quantities, causing an increasing in lake salinity and rendering the lake unsuitable for water supply and irrigation.  This backflow further results in an advanced settling of suspended solids due to auto-flocculation as a consequence of high salinity.  Such an occurrence is extremely desirable among the fishery sector.  However, this conflicts with the other uses of the lake such as for drinking water and irrigation.

According to the 1990 Philippine National Standards (Revised Water Quality Criteria) for Drinking Water, the maximum permissible level of total chloride content should not exceed 250 mg/l.  Generally, however, the present average concentration of chloride in the lake in 1990 is above this threshold limit (see Table 4.01)

The salinity of the lake water is at the forefront of the conflicting demand for water of the fishermen and the farmers.  An adequate amount of saline water is needed for fishery but not for dry season irrigation for rice and vegetable production and for sources of drinking water.  With the construction of the NHOS, the salinity of the lake can be decreased to an acceptable level for water supply if it is operated in accordance with the agreed rule curve.  The problem, however, lies in the need to establish the optimum level of saline water to be allowed in order to avoid conflict with fisheries.  This has to be technically determined.

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Turbidity is a measure of the suspended particle such as silt, clay, organic matter, plankton, and microscopic organisms which in water are usually held in suspension by turbulent flow and random movement.

There are three (3) major factors which account for high turbidity.  These include mineral turbidity from the streams and the lake sediments; turbidity due to high algal concentrations; and, turbidity from detritus.

Excessive turbidity interferes with the penetration of light thereby reducing photosynthesis, leading to a decrease in the primary production upon which the fish food organisms depend.  As a result, fish production decreases.

TURBIDITY is generally presented as increasing in the lake since the last decade.  Two main reasons explain this problem.  The first is a Physical Reason.  Because of its shallow depth, the bottom sediments of the lake can easily be resuspended in water as a result of wind induced currents.  The second is a Chemical Reason.  With the closing of the NHCS, saline water is prevented from entering the lake.  Presence of salts in water is essential to help the flocculation of colloids thus increasing sedimentation and increasing transparency of water.

Inorganic turbidity of the lake measured as Si02, is increasing rapidly in recent years.  This is due to sediments transported from denuded catchment areas.  Some studies (JICA, 1991) reveal that seasonal variation of turbidity is conspicuous.  There are indications that turbidity is inversely correlated with rainfall, that is; when rainfall is higher, turbidity is lower, and vice versa.  This seem to indicate that the turbidity of the lake is caused not much by direct river inflow containing large amounts of sediments but rather mainly by stirring up effects of water currents caused by river inflow and winds.

In 1994, the annual mean values of lake turbidity ranged from 58 to 84 mg/l Si02 presented a minimum average of 12 mg/1 and a maximum value of 263 mg/1 Si02.  It was also observed that the lake exhibited peak turbidity at the start of the 4th quarter of the year which could be attributed to the strong wind condition.

The annual turbidity values for all the rivers monitored were all below 50 mg/l Si02 except for T2 (San Pedro River) which exhibited an average of 52 mg/1 Si02 (LLDA, 1994).  The turbidity of water for recreational purposes is recommended to be from 5 to 50 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit) (Inland Water Directorate Water Quality Sources Bood, 1976).

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“HAZARDOUS WASTES” are residual substances discharged to the environment which constitute a substantial present or potential danger to living organisms and human health.  “TOXIC WASTES” are residuals which contain substances which can be lethal to living organisms.

The Laguna de Bay Basin has experienced intensified use by new and expanding agro-industrial activities and a general rural to urban transformation.  This has undoubtedly contributed to the widespread perception of a diminishing level of water quality in the lake and this condition can be expected to continue for sometime in the future.

The predominant contributions of THS wastes (principally heavy metals and agricultural pesticides) are derived from the sub-basins of Laguna flowing into West Bay, encompassing Metro Manila and the western shoreline.

Results of a survey in 1989 (URSI) covering 70 THS are presented in Table 4.02.  According to the results the most abundant THS discharge in the lake are:

i).     Temperature

The temperature is defined as the condition of a body which determines the transfer of heat to, or from, other bodies.  The temperature of a water is primarily a reflection of the climatic regime; however, man can modify water temperatures.  Water used for cooling in power plants transfer heat into receiving waters.  The discharge of many industrial wastes may also elevate water temperature above ambient levels in limited area.  Based on observations, industrial cooling water discharged from the NPC Thermal Power Plants show as increase of about 2oC in temperature.

Increasing water temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen in water while increasing the oxygen demand of fish.  Higher temperature increases the solubility of many chemical compounds and may influence the effect of pollutants on aquatic life.

ii).     Nitrate

Nitrate (N03) is the principal form of combined nitrogen found in natural waters.  The highly soluble nitrate ion, which is the most stable form of combined nitrogen in surface waters, results from the complete oxidation of nitrogen compounds.  Nitrogen compounds come from chemical fertilizers from cultivated lands and drainage from livestock feed-lots, as well as domestic and industrial waters.

Excessive concentrations of nitrate in drinking water are considered hazardous to infants, who may develop mehaemoglobinaemia.

In surface waters, nitrate is a common nutrient taken up by plant and converted into cell protein.  Since nitrates stimulate plant growth, aquatic organisms (such as algae) flourish in the presence of nitrates and excessive amounts of nitrate may result in the prolific growth of aquatic plants.

The nitrate concentrations in the lake had annual means ranging from 106 to 201 ug/1 to 495 ug/l.  The criteria for Class “C” water is 10,000 ug/l (Table 4.01).  The annual means of nitrate concentrations for tributaries ranged from 124 ug/l to 621/l.  Pagsanjan River showed the lowest nitrate level while San Juan exhibited the highest nitrate level which indicates the presence of high domestic wastes (Table 4.07).

iii)     Dissolved Oxygen

Oxygen is one of the gases that is found in natural surface waters.  The oxygen dissolved in water may be derived from either the atmosphere or from photosynthesis by aquatic plant (phytoplankton).  Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) concentrations yield no adverse physiological effect on man, however, ample amounts of dissolved oxygen available is essential to the fish and other aquatic organisms for growth and survival.  Insufficient dissolved oxygen in surface waters may contribute to an unfavorable environment for aquatic life and the absence of dissolved oxygen may give rise to odoriferous products of anaerobic decomposition or may cause fish death due to suffocation.  It is therefore important that D.O. levels in the lake should be maintained within acceptable standards.

Supersaturation of D.O. during daytime is also observed in some portions of the lake especially during algal blooms.  This may cause “gas bubble” disease in some fish species.

For Class “C” waters the minimum D.O. standard is set at 5 mg/l.  The annual mean values for daytime dissolved oxygen of the lake ranged from 6.1 to 6.8 mg/l. (Table 4.01).  For tributaries, in terms of annual averages, the following rivers met the D.O. requirement:  Sta. Cruz River, Pagsanjan River and Bay River (Table 4.07)

iv.     pH:  (Alkalinity or Acidity)

The pH of natural water is usually governed by carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, carbonate equilibria and lies in the range between 4.5 and 8.5.  The pH of water may be affected by humic substance, by changes in the carbonate equilibria due to the bioactivity of plants and in some cases, by hydrolyzable salts.  The effect of pH on the chemical and biological properties of liquids makes its determination very significant, e.g. for controlling corrosion and for the control of water or waste-treatment processes.  Moreover, the pH of water may influence the species composition of an aquatic environment and affect the availability of nutrients and relative toxicity of many trace elements.

The annual mean values for the pH of the lake ranged from 7.8 to 8.4 (Table 4.01) which was more on the alkaline side.  The permissible range of pH for Class “C” and Class “A” waters is 6.5 to 8.5.  For tributaries, the annual mean values ranged from 7.8 to 8.0.

v.  Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) which is an index of the amount of dissolved substances in water, consist mainly of carbonates, bicarbonates, chloride, sulfates, phosphates, and possibly nitrates of Ca, Mg, Na, K, with traces of Fe, Mn, and other substances.

High concentrations of TDS limit the suitability of water as a drinking source and for irrigation.  High surface run-off and overland flow contribute dissolved materials to receiving bodies of water.  Significant contribution to the TDS loads are authropogenic in the form of municipal and industrial effluents, agricultural run-off, and aerosol fall-out.

Observations in the lake show that the TDS annual mean values ranged from 609 mg/l to 841 mg/l (Table 4.01).  The annual average TDS concentrations in all the rivers monitored were below the minimum permissible TDS limit for Class “C” water which is 1,000 mg/l.

vi.  Inorganic Phosphate

Inorganic phosphate, a non-metallic element occurs in numerous organic and inorganic forms and can be present as a dissolved or particulate species.  It may occur in surface or ground water as a result of leaching from minerals or ores in natural processes of degradation of organic matter, and as an element of municipal sewage and industrial effluents.

The discharge of excessive amount of phosphates to streams or lakes may result in an over-abundance of algae.  Upon decay, dead algae compete for the dissolved oxygen endangering fish life and giving off unpleasant odor.  Phosphates seldom exhibit toxic effects upon fish and other aquatic life and may be beneficial to fish culture.

The annual averages for inorganic phosphate ranged from 60 ug/l to 90 ug/l were recorded in 1994.  The maximum standard for inorganic phosphate allowed for lakes and reservoir is 100 ug/l.  The phosphate concentration in all rivers exceeded the desirable concentrations except for T8 which exhibited an annual mean value of 97 ug/l, (LLDA, 1994).  These concentration levels are contributing to lake eutrophication.

vii.  Coliform

The coliform group includes all the aerobic and facultative anaerobic gram negative, non-spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria which ferment lactose with gas formation within 48 hours at 35oC.

High counts of coliform bacteria, especially fecal coliform indicate the presence of animal wastes, which may support pathogenic organisms.  Such waters are unsuitable for domestic, recreational, agricultural and some industrial applications.

Observations of MPN (Most Probable Number) of coliform are highly variable in the lake and the Class “C” standard of 5000 MPN/100 ml is exceeded 6% of the time in all the lake stations monitored.  For tributaries, all the rivers exceeded the standard for Class “C” and Class “A” waters of 5000 MPN/100 ml.  This, therefore indicates that human and animal wastes finding its way into the lake is quite high.

The San Pedro River (Laguna) at all times yielded the highest coliform density of 24 x 106MPN/100 ml. (LLDA, 1994).  It should be noted that this river is the most polluted among all lake tributaries.

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Inimical to the sustainability of the lake and its resources is the worsening situation of the quality of the environment in the region.  The growing development pressures brought about by population growth, industrialization, urbanization and increasing resources utilization result in environmental degradation, most notable of which is pollution.  It is estimated that domestic sources account for 29.83% of the total pollution in the lake while 30.35% comes from industrial sources.  Agricultural waste on the other hand  account for about 39.82% of lake pollution sources (Figure 4.2).

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Industrial pollution contribute about 30.35% to the degradation of water quality and the resulting economic and environmental effects.  As of 1994, there are 1,481 industrial establishments in the lake basin, mostly concentrated on the western shore.  These are dominated by the chemical products, food processing and metal sectors.  About 32% are classified as wet industries, discharging wastewater directly or indirectly to the lake.  Of these, 69% have wastewater treatment facilities (Table 4.08).  According to the 1988 classification, 11% were highly pollutive, 59%  pollutive while the remaining 30% are non-pollutive (Table 4.09).

In 1988, total daily wasteload from industries reported by LLDA were as follows: BOD = 405 MT, TSS = 988 MT, oil and grease = 8 MT (Table 4.10).  Based on the NEDA projected growth for the manufacturing sector until the year 2000, the generation of pollutants from industries within the Laguna de Bay basin is assumed at an average of 10% annually (NEDA  Region IV , 1992).  

The threat of toxic and hazardous substances (THS) is certainly the most serious which can definitely hamper the use of the lakewater for domestic purpose and the safe consumption of ishery products.  The survey of URSI (1989) showed that 41% of the industries located within the Laguna de Bay basin, discharged THS which exceed the chronic criteria  for the protection of aquatic life (Table 4.11).  The total THS loading in kg/day is presented in Table 4.02 and projects these values to the year 1995, 2000 and 2010.  Also shown in Figure 4.3, are the areas with possible high THS.

The lakewater being used for industrial cooling purposes generate thermal pollution upon the discharge of water.  This form of thermal pollution affects the solubility of dissolved oxygen in water.  This will have concomitant effects on aquatic life and on the existing water quality.  In addition, the wastewater contains chlorine (CL) which affects the primary productivity of the lake.  In a 1973 survey near Sucat, the total number of phytoplankton dropped from approximately 1 Million/ml to about 200,000/ml (BCEOM, 1984).

Barging and oil transport operations in Laguna de Bay (Figure 4.4) poses the risk of collision and oil spills which is obviously dangerous to water quality.  As of 1991, the volume of fuel transported each day is as follows: 50,000 barrels from Sucat to Malaya; 1,300 barrels from PPC refinery to Pillila Gas Turbine; 3,300 barrels from PPC refinery in Pillila to Manila and 15,000 barrels from Sucat to PPC refinery.

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4.1.2.2

Of the 8.4 Million present population at the Laguna de Bay Region, about 60% of the total households discharge liquid and solid wastes directly into the lake or into the tributary rivers of the lake (LLDA, 1994).  Except in plush housing developments, no piped domestic sewerage system exists in the Laguna de Bay Region.  Wastewater is mostly discharged directly into the ground, open drains, tributaries and Laguna de Bay.

Seventy six percent (76%) of the basin residents are in non-lakeshore municipalities while twenty-four percent (24%) are located in lakeshore areas.  Almost eighty percent (80%) of the population reside in urbanized areas of the region.  Due to increasing demand for residential areas, more subdivisions mushroomed in the region.  In 1989, around 1,898 subdivisions were developed, most of these concentrated in East Bay.

Domestic sources of pollution account for about 70% of the organic wastes discharged into the lake and for the highly pollutive leachate from solid wastes.

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4.1.2.3

Agricultural Pollution

a.     Fertilizers and Pesticides Application

Fifty two percent (52%) of the total land area of Laguna de Bay Region is devoted to agriculture which includes 30,000 ha of irrigated rice paddies (Figure 4.5).

The principal crops grown in the area include rice, sugarcane and coconut.  Significant quantities of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium base fertilizers and Organo Chlorine and Organo Phosphorus Pesticides (principally insecticides and herbicides but includes fungicides and molluscicides) are applied to agricultural areas to enhance the quality and quantity of production of these crops.  Various proportions of these chemicals may reach rivers and lake via irrigation water and/or from run-off during rainfall and thus add to the pollution load.  It is noted that DDT is widely used unofficially despite its undesirable persistence in the environment (LLDA, 1978).  Agricultural return flow is of great concern in Laguna de Bay because of the relatively high fertilizer application in rice paddies and the fact that the rice paddies are located in the lowlands bordering the lake.  Agricultural return flow is a significant source of Nitrogen inflow to the lake in view of large scale irrigation projects under implementation.  Agricultural pollution is more difficult to control than a point source pollution because the former cannot be economically collected for treatment.  Nitrogen is presently the most damaging pollutant  which result in the proliferation of algae which influence eutrophication.

Nitrogen from agricultural sources is about 60% of the total in 1975-76 and 53% of the projected total in 2000 (SOGREAH, 1974).

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b.     Livestock Wastes 

About 5% of the Nitrogen in chicken waste may be introduced to the lake due to washdown from chicken production.  Likewise, about 25% od duck waste is washed into the lake from commercial sources and that 50% is added from backyard farms.  For swine production, about one-third (1/3) of the swine waste enters the lake from commercial farms away from the lakeshore and the two-thirds (2/3) of the waste enters the lake from those farms that are near the lake.  Approximately one-fourth (1/4) of the commercial farms are in the latter category. It is assumed that 5% of the waste from backyard farms enter the drainage system.  For cattle, it is assumed that 5% of the waste reaches the lake. 

This trend will continue if nothing is done until it reaches massive proportions since the demand for food is increasing exponentially. 

In 1975, animal pollution generation is estimated at 38,500 MT BOD, 10,000 MT BOD, 10,000 MT of Nitrogen and 3,500 MT of Phosphorus.  This will increase to 112,500 MT of BOD, 24,500 MT of Nitrogen and 10,200 MT of Phosphorus by the year 2000 (LLDA, 1978).

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4.1.2.4

The rapid urbanization of the region and the residential, commercial and industrial encroachment occurring principally along the northern and western shores of the lake pose a serious problem on solid waste management and will become worse when its population grows to more than 11 million by the year 2000.  It is estimated that by that time, the refuse coming from the households/residential establishments, commercial, industrial and other sources will be 6,362 tons per day.

Presently, the total solid waste generation is estimate at 5,565 tons/day or 2.3 million tons annually for Metro Manila Area (MMA) and 392 tons/day and 473 tons/day for Laguna and Rizal respectively.  The existing solid waste disposal system numbering 7 in Metro Manila and 21 for Laguna and Rizal respectively (JICA, 1991).

Overall, about one-third (1/3) of the solid waste generated in the basin is collected.  The remaining two-thirds (2/3) are either composted, thrown on vacant lots, scattered on streets, which will eventually find their way to sewers and other water courses carried by storm water runoff and subsequently discharged to Laguna de Bay.  This indiscriminate disposal of domestic waste contributes around 30% of the pollution load of the lake.  Aside from health problems, garbage impedes the flow of water and contributes further to the flooding of low-lying areas.

The Nitrogen inflow into the lake from solid waste was estimated in 1989 to be 3,000 MT (Lopez, 1989).  As urbanization and industrialization increases, more wastes will enter the water courses because less and less land would be available for satisfactory disposal methods.

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FISHERIES PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

The fisheries in Laguna de Bay is a major concern in resource management.  It is both an advantage and a problem which has to be properly addressed to maximize its beneficial uses.  The deterioration of water quality due to lake pollution has quantitatively and qualitatively affected the fishery of the lake.  On the other hand, the fishery activities are also seen as a cause of water quality deterioration.  Aside from pollution there are other problems related to fisheries which have to be addressed to make fishery resource utilization more efficient.  

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4.1.3.1

Fishery Activities as Sources of Pollution

Practices in open fisheries and aquaculture are also identified as sources of pollution.  In the operations of fishpens and fishcages, pollutants come from non-biodegradable nets and twines, decaying bamboo materials, inorganic feeds, fish fecal matters as well as organic wastes, suspended solids, nutrients, toxic and hazardous substances discarded by fishpen caretakers staying in guardhouses in the lake.

In open lake fishing, discarded nets and other fishing gears as well as gasoline and oil spills from boats also contribute to pollution loading in the lake.  Moreover, certain fishing practices such as snail gathering which involves scraping of the sediments allows the release of nutrients and toxic and hazardous substance that have accumulated in the lake bottom.  However, it was reported by MEIP (MEIP, 1994) that no estimates has been made of the contribution of fishery activities to the pollution of the lake.

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4.1.3.2

Fishery Problems in Laguna Lake

a.   Fishpen Industry

i)   Uncontrolled Stocking of Fingerlings

The uncontrolled stocking of fishpens resulted to low fish productivity and mass mortality of fish stocks.  In 1977 survey (LLDA, 1978), the stocking density of milkfish in the lake per hectare ranged from 100,000 to 1 million fingerlings.  It shows that more than 76% of the fishpen have stocked at a maximum of 250, 000 fingerling/hectare while 23% have stocked to as much as 1 million fingerlings/hectare.  The maximum fingerlings mortality recorded in the Central, East & South Bays were 60%, 90% and 80% respectively.  Most of the operators attributed the mortality to the synergetic effect of improper handling and transport of fingerlings.

It was pointed out in one of the studies (SOGREAH 1991) that the excessive fishpen development in 1984 did not only involve area development but also over supply of fingerlings.  As reported, oversupply reaches 50,000 to 60,000 fingerlings/ha. instead of 4,000 to 5,000 fingerlings/ha. as recommended by the LLDA.  As the potential food production of the Lake become exhausted, fish productivity in the lake is also expected to decline.

ii)  Poor Site Selection and Uncontrolled Fishpen Construction

Many of the enclosures are constructed indiscriminately which resulted in the blocking of local access to communities, river, outlets, navigational channels and obstructing lake circulation pattern.  The proliferation of fishpens reduced the area available for open fishing and caused other problems like the recurrence of algal bloom and dense growth of water hyacinth.

iii)  Practice of Inappropriate Fish Culture Schemes by the Fishpen Operators

The production potential of the fishpen must be optimized in order to maintain a well balanced food chain.  However, report shows that the monopoly of milkfish culture in fishpens discriminates the introduction of other high quality species, either in mono or polyculture (LLDA, 1978).  Milkfish by feeding habit is a herbivore and is expected not to convert all the feed produced in the lake into usable fish flesh, thus, there is a need for a polyculture method of fish culture.

The balance utilization of feeds in the lake is not attained due to lack of technology know-how or study on the use of the different fish species of varying behavior and feed habitat.  The introduction of inappropriate polyculture scheme could have also resulted in food competition and ecological imbalance in the lake as it disrupts various linkages in the food chain/trophic levels.

Moreover, the introduction of exotic species such as Clarias batrachus resulted in the displacement of native hito Clarias macrocephalus.  The proliferation of golden snail in the lake may result in the extinction of aquatic macrophytes.  Lately, the African giant catfish (Clarias gariepines) a voracious predator endangers the native fish in the lake such as the dulong, ayungin and shrimp.  

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Open Lake Fishery

The main problems identified by (SOGREAH, 1991) has been the over-exploitation of the lake fishery resources through the following:

i)     Increase Fishing Pressure

Table 4.12 presents the evolution of fishermen population over the years.  The increase in total number of fishermen resulted in declining fish catch due to the corresponding increase in fishing activities.

ii)     Illegal Fishing Activities

The fishing practices of fishermen is influenced by the growing competition for fish catch.  As such, practices such as electro-fishing, use of poisons, use of fine meshed nets and push nets became rampant.

iii)     Continuous Snail Gathering Activities

The snails are usually collected by dredging or trawling operations.  SOGREAH (1991) reported that about 160,000 to 180,000 tons of snails are harvested annually.  This represents about 2.0 tons of snails per hectare per year.

The effect of this intensive snail gathering thru dredging include the destruction of benthos and rooted plants and increased lake turbidity.

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b.   Open Lake Fishery

The main problems identified by (SOGREAH, 1991) has been the over-exploitation of the lake fishery resources through the following:

i)     Increase Fishing Pressure

Table 4.12 presents the evolution of fishermen population over the years.  The increase in total number of fishermen resulted in declining fish catch due to the corresponding increase in fishing activities.

ii)     Illegal Fishing Activities

The fishing practices of fishermen is influenced by the growing competition for fish catch.  As such, practices such as electro-fishing, use of poisons, use of fine meshed nets and push nets became rampant.

iii)     Continuous Snail Gathering Activities

The snails are usually collected by dredging or trawling operations.  SOGREAH (1991) reported that about 160,000 to 180,000 tons of snails are harvested annually.  This represents about 2.0 tons of snails per hectare per year.

The effect of this intensive snail gathering thru dredging include the destruction of benthos and rooted plants and increased lake turbidity.

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Other Related Problems to Fisheries

a.     Algal Bloom

SOGREAH (1991) categorized the lake as hypereutrophic due to high levels of phosphate and nitrogen influenced the occurrence of algal bloom.  Identified bloom forming algae in the lake include Microsystis, Anabaena and Oscillatoria species all blue green algae.

The damages caused by algal bloom to fisheries include:

i)     Low market value of fish due to tainted flesh and mud-like bad taste.

ii)     Massive fishkills due to oxygen depletion during occurrence of algal respiration at night time and algal die-off and decay.  Fishstocks trapped in fishpens and fishcages usually die of asphyxiation.

LLDA (1978) stressed that the magnitude of losses due to algal bloom is expected to increase in proportion to the pollutants input.  

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b.     Proliferation and Massive Growth of Water Hyacinth

This problem is also influenced by the eutrophic condition of the lake.  Water hyacinth (a floating aquatic plant more commonly referred to as waterlily) usually abounds along the shorelines, in-between fishpens/cages and in tributary streams and rivers.  The distribution and dense accumulation of water hyacinth depends on the direction of wind and wave action.  The problems to fisheries caused by the thick accumulation of water hyacinth include:

i.     Poor productivity due to poor water circulation

ii.     Difficulty in lake navigation

iii.     Fishkill due to death and decay of the aquatic plant

iv.     Destruction of fishpens/cages structures

v.     Increase water losses due to over transpiration

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c.     Occurrence of Fish Diseases

The fish diseases which caused considerable losses to lake fisheries include the epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) locally referred to as “kurikong” and fungal infection.

EUS maybe caused by a bacterium known as Aeromonas hydrophila which commonly affects bottom feeding fresh water species such as mudfish, carps and “gouramy”.  The occurrence of this disease is observed to occur in poor water quality characterized by low temperature, low productivity, strong winds and high turbidity.

Fungal infection on the other hand develop when the fish suffer bruises, wounds and loss of scales during handling and transport of fishstocks.  Fungus attacjs the injured parts initially, and then later spreads to other healthy parts of the body causing death to fish.  

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d.     Siltation and Sedimentation

Rapid siltation leads to accelerated aging of the lake and the continuous turbid condition of the water which in turn results in poor fishery production.  MEIP (1994) attributed the sedimentation of the lake to the continuing soil erosion due to deforestation and also poor agricultural practices within the basin.  JICA (1991) noted that 47% of the basin is susceptible to soil erosion with Marikina having the largest erodible area.

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4.2.1

LAND USE

The Laguna Lake Region comprises a number of catchment areas.  Land use activities in these areas, such as those related to the forest cover, agriculture, urban development, energy production, mining, and lake draw-down affect both the watershed and the lake.

The traditional land use pattern in the Basin - the series of small compact urban centers in Metro Manila contained by vast rice paddies, coconut, sugarcane plantations and orchards in the rest of the Basin has been rapidly changing due to physical social and political factors among which include the following: (1) population growth (in-migration for economic opportunity), (2) the creation of Metro Manila as a political entity in 1975 and adoption of the intermediate urban area system for urban expansion, (3) Presidential proclamation of a dispersal policy for industry whereby major industrial development could no longer the located within 50 km radius from the Luneta Park, (4) Construction of the South Super Highway which promoted corridor movement from Manila south to Calamba, and (5) the sustainability of much of the area for economic development thereby accelerating industrial expansion (URSI, 1989).  These factos have contributed to the continuing encroachment of built-up areas into agricultural lands and heavy deforestation in the upland areas of the watershed.  The western rim of the lake gives evidence of urban sprawl-- suburbanization and strip development north of Manila to Montalban and southeasterly as far as Los Baños.

Industrialization and growth of major urban centers in the northwestern and southwestern portions of the basins are generally influenced by the economic growth fostered by Metro Manila.

All types of industries in the basin are clustered in the north from Manila to Marikina and Antipolo along the western growth corridor from Muntinlupa south to Calamba.  Agro-industry (which includes livestock raising, particularly hogs and poultry) is principally centered in two locations-- in the northern area around Montalban, San Mateo, Angono and Baras in Rizal Province and the southeast focused on Sta. Cruz, Pila and Victoria in Laguna Province.

The Basin is also rich in industrial materials.  At least ten municipalities currently have some form of mining, quarrying or extractive activity underway.  Several municipalities are the source of significant water or power supply.  Montalban and Tanay dams supply water to Manila, Pililla and Cavinti which are centers of electric power generation and Bay which is the center of geothermal development (URSI, 1989).

In 1974, SOGREAH suggested a land zoning for the lakeshores.  This was a result of the proposed rule curve and thus, probable lake levels due to the flooding effect on the lake.  The extent of potential flooding along the Laguna lakeshore, defined as the area between 10.5 m and 14.6 m above LLDA datum level, was calculated in 1975 to be 26,000 has.  The land use in this area consisted in the same year of 1,992 has.  residential, 14,478 has.  agricultural, 323 has. industrial and 102 has. commercial consisting 63% of the total, with the rest being marshes and swamps.  Rapid urbanization in the flood plains has increased the potential for flood damage (JICA, 1991).  More than 14,000 has. are subject to flooding every year.  Present observation of the lakeshore concludes that the development which occured along the shoreline does not respect the 12.5 m. limit nor the basic recommendation regarding land occupation (SOGREAH,  1991).

Chapter Contents

4.2.1.1

a.    Settlements and Urban Development

Due to its proximity, the development of the Laguna de Bay region has been influenced by the growth of Metro Manila in socio-economic and physical terms.  Especially, the urbanization in the provinces adjacent to Metro Manila has been mainly caused by spillover of the population economically linked to it (JICA,  1991).   The suburbanization in the areas in the region has taken forms of private subdivision of lands,  government-sponsored low cost housing and site and services programs, and spontaneous development of residential areas in existing towns.  Five main directions are identified:

Some environmental issues related to human settlements are those affecting their location, expansion and issues related to their management, regulation and maintenance.

The absence of a regional land use plan, concrete land ownership structures and explicit government intervention strategies are perhaps the main factors contributing to “illegal” settlements and chaotic urban sprawl in the Region today.  These situations are mainly characterized by primitive facilities, overcrowding/congestion and poor sanitation linked to an unhealthy environment.

Proximity to basic services and facilities and sources of livelihood remain to be logical consideration for determining the location of rural and urban communitues in the Region.  The uncontrolled physical expansion of urban communities make provision for housing, roads, water supply, sewers and public services prohibitively expensive in financial;  technical and environmental terms.  Urban communities have been, lately, built in the most productive agricultural lands resulting in permanent loss of precious land resources.  In general, urban growth have often preceded the establishment of a solid, diversified economic base to support the build-up of housing, infrastructure and employment.

In the Philippines, there are neither explicit urban development policies nor are there organizations specializing in urban development.  Recently, however, the importance of urban development in economic development has been recognized, and a physical framework for Luzon has been established by NEDA.  However, the physical framework is nothing more than indicative at best.